Haemoglobinopathy

Review Article Indian J Med Res 134, October 2011, pp 552-560 Invasive & non-invasive approaches for prenatal diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies: Experiences from India R. B. Colah, A. C. Gorakshakar & A. H. Nadkarni National Institute of Immunohaematology (ICMR), Mumbai, India Received October 29, 2010 The thalassaemias and sickle cell disease are the commonest monogenic disorders in India. There are an estimated 7500 – 12,000 babies with ? -thalassaemia major born every year in the country. While the overall prevalence of carriers in different States varies from 1. to 4 per cent, recent work has shown considerable variations in frequencies even within States. Thus, micromapping would help to determine the true burden of the disease. Although screening in antenatal clinics is being done at many centres, only 15-20 per cent of pregnant women register in antenatal clinics in public hospitals in the first trimester of pregnancy. There are only a handful of centres in major cities in this vast country where prenatal diagnosis is done. There is considerable molecular heterogeneity with 64 mutations identified, of which 6 to 7 common mutations account for 80-90 per cent of mutant alleles. First trimester foetal diagnosis is done by chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and DNA analysis using reverse dot blot hybridization, amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) and DNA sequencing. Second trimester diagnosis is done by cordocentesis and foetal blood analysis on HPLC at a few centres. Our experience on prenatal diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies in 2221 pregnancies has shown that >90 per cent of couples were referred for prenatal diagnosis of ? -thalassaemia after having one or more affected children while about 35 per cent of couples were referred for prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell disorders prospectively. There is a clear need for more data from India on non-invasive approaches for prenatal diagnosis. Key words Haemoglobinopathies – India – invasive and non-invasive approaches – prenatal diagnosis Introduction The inherited disorders of haemoglobin are the most common monogenic disorders globally. Around 7 per cent of the population worldwide are carriers with more than 3,00,000 severely affected babies born every year1. Prenatal diagnosis is an integral component of a community control programme for haemoglobinopathies. Estimating the disease burden, generating awareness in the population, screening 552 o identify carriers and couples at – risk and genetic counselling are prerequisites for a successful prevention programme. The remarkable success of such programmes in the 1970s in Cyprus, Italy, Greece and the UK led to the development of control programmes in many other countries2-6. The extent of the problem in India ? -thalassaemia has been reported in most of the communities that have been screened so far in India. While the overall prevalence varies from 1. 5 to 4 per COLAH et al: PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS OF HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES IN INDIA 553 ent in different States, communities like Sindhis, Punjabis, Lohanas, Kutchi Bhanushalis, Jains and Bohris have a higher prevalence (4-17%)7-12. Different reportshaveestimatedthat7500-12,000? -thalassaemia major babies would be born in India each year12 -14. It has also been shown recently by micromapping at the district level in two States, Maharashtra and Gujarat in westernIndiathattheprevalenceof? -thalassaemiatrait in different districts within these States is variable (0 9. 5%). Based on these estimates there would be around 1000birthsof? thalassaemiamajorbabieseachyear in these two States alone15. Thus, such data should be obtained from different States to know the true burden of the disease and for planning and executing control programmes. Haemoglobin S (Hb S) is prevalent in central India and among the tribal belts in western, eastern and southern India, the carrier rates varying from 1-40 per cent16-18. It has been estimated that over 5000 babies with sickle cell disease would be born each year19. Haemoglobin E is widespread in the north eastern States in Assam, Mizoram, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura, the prevalence of Hb E trait being highest (64%) among the Bodo-Kacharis in Assam and going up to 30-40 per cent in some other populations in this region20-22. In eastern India the prevalence of Hb E trait varies from 3-10 per cent in West Bengal8,23. Both Hb E andHbSwhenco-inheritedwith? -thalassaemiaresult in a disorder of variable clinical severity24-26. These inherited haemoglobin disorders cause considerable pain and suffering to the patients and their families and are a major drain on health resources in the country. The need for accurate identification of carries and couples at risk Classical ? thalassaemia carriers have typically reduced red cell indices [mean corpuscular volume (MCV)T) ? + 3. -87 (C>T) ? + 4. -80 (C>T) ? + 5. -29 (A>G) ? + 6. -28 (A>G) ? + 7. -25 (A>G) ? + B. Cap site 1. +1 (A>C) ? + C. Initiation codon 1. ATG > ACG ? 0 D. RNA processing mutations i) Splice junction site 1. Codon 30 (G>C) ? 0 2. Codon 30 (G>A) ? 0 3. IVS 1-1 (G>T) ? 0 4. IVS 1-1 (G>A) ? 0 5. IVS 1-129 (A>C) ? 0 6. IVS 1-130 (G>C) ? 0 7. IVS 1-130 (G>A) ? 0 8. IVS II-1 (G>A) ? 0 (ii) Consensus site 1. IVS 1-5 (G>C) ? + 2. IVS 1-128 (TAG > GAG) ? + 3. IVS II-837 (T>G) ? (iii) IVS changes 1. IVS I-110 (G>A) ? + 2. IVS II-591 (T>C) ? + 3. IVS II-613 (C>T) ? + 4. IVS II-654 (C>T) ? + 5. IVS II-745 (C>G) ? + iv) Coding region changes 1. Codon 26 (G>A) Hb E ? + E. RNA translational mutations i) Nonsense 1. Codons 4,5,6 (ACT CCT GAG> ACA TCT ? 0 TAG) 2. Codon 5 (-CT), Codon 13 (C>T), Codon 26 ? (G>C), Codons 27/28 (+C) in cis 3. Codon 6 (GAG > TAG) and on the same ? 0 chromosome Codon 4 (ACT> ACA) , Codon 5 (CCT>TCT) 4. Codon 8 (A>G) ? 5. Codon 13 (C>T), Codon 26 (G>A), Codons ? 27/28 (-C) in cis 6. Codon 15 (TGG > TAG) ? 0 7. Codons 62-64 (7 bp del) ? 0 8. Codons 81-87 (22 bp del) ? 9. Codon 121 (G>T) ? 0 Contd†¦. themselves, today their relatives and extended families are coming forward to get screened38. There is only one centre in Lucknow in north India which offers a formal course for genetic counsellors and there is a need for more such courses throughout the country. Counsellors should be aware that couples at risk of havingachildwith? -thalassaemiamajor,sicklecel l disease, Hb S ? -thalassaemia, Hb E ? -thalassaemia, – ? -thalassaemia, Hb Lepore ? -thalassaemia and Hb SD disease should be given the option of prenatal diagnosis to avoid the birth of a child with a severe disorder. However, couples at risk of having a child with Hb D disease, Hb D ? -thalassaemia and Hb E disease do not require prenatal diagnosis as these disorders are mild. InSardinia,identificationofthemaximumnumber of carriers followed by effective genetic counselling helpedtoreducethebirthrateof? -thalassaemiamajor babies from 1:250 to 1:400039. Prenatal diagnosis The first initiatives in India Facilities for prenatal diagnosis became available in India in the mid 1980s40. Until then, although prenatal diagnosis was offered by a few centres, foetal samples were sent to the UK and other countries for analysis. Foetal blood sampling by foetoscopy done between 18 and 22 wk gestation and diagnosis by globin chain synthesis were done for the next 4 to 5 years at 2 centres in Mumbai40,41. Chorionic villus sampling and DNA analysis in the first trimester In the 1990s first trimester foetal diagnosis by chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and DNA analysis was established at 4-5 centres in the north in Delhi42, in the west in Mumbai41,43,44 and in the south in Vellore45. These services then expanded to other cities like Lucknow and Chandigarh in the north46,47, and Kolkata in the east48. However, these services are still limited to major cities where couples are referred to or CVS samples are sent from surrounding areas. Molecular analysis ? -thalassaemia is extremely heterogeneous with more than 200 mutations described worldwide49. In India, about 64 mutations have been characterized by studies done at different centres30,31,49-51 (Table I). Six to seven mutations [IVS 1-5 (G? C), 619 bp deletion, IVS 1-1 (G? T), Codon 8/9 (+G), Codons 41/42 (-CTTT), COLAH et al: PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS OF HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES IN INDIA (ii) Frameshift 1. Codon 5 (-CT) 2. Codons 7/8 (+G) 3. Codon 8 (-AA) 4. Codons 8/9(+G) 5. Codon 13 (C>T) 6. Codon 15 (-T) 7. Codon 16 (-C) 8. Codon 16 (C>T) 9. Codon 17 (A>T) 10. Codons 22-24 (7 bp del) 11. Codon 26 (G>T) 12. Codon 35 (A>G) 13. Codons 36/37 (-T) 14. Codons 36-39 (8 bp del) 15. Codon 39 (C>T) 16. Codon 44 (-C) 17. Codons 47/48 (+ATCT) 18. Codon 55 (+A) 19. Codon 55 (-A) 20. Codons 57/58 (+A) 21. Codon 88 (+T) 22. Codons 106/107 (+G) 23. Codon 110 (T>C) 24. Codon 111 (-G) 25. Codon 135 (C>T) F. RNA cleavage and polyadenylation mutation 1. AATAAA>AACAAA G. Deletional mutations 1. 619 bp deletion; 3’end 2. 10. 3 kb deletion 3. Codons 126-131 (17 bp deletion) Source: Refs 30, 31, 49-51 55 ?0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? + ? 0 ? + ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 Fig. 1. Regionaldistributionof? -thalassaemiamutationinIndia. molecular techniques like covalent reverse dot blot hybridization (CRDB), amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS), denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), and DNA sequencing43,44 ,52. Foetal blood analysis in the second trimester Most of the prenatal diagnosis programmes in the Mediterranean countries started with second trimester foetal blood analysis but they were able to switch over tofirsttrimesterdiagnosisinashortspan5,39. In India, second trimester diagnosis is still done as manycouplesatriskareidentifiedlateduringpregnancy. Foetal blood sampling is done by cordocentesis at 18 to20wkgestationandafterconfirmingthatthereisno maternal contamination in the foetal sample by foetal cell staining using the Kleihauer-Betke method, it is analysed by HPLC on the Variant Hemoglobin Testing System (Bio Rad Laboratories, Hercules, USA). The HbA levels in foetuses affected with ? -thalassaemia major have ranged from 0 to 0. 5 per cent and these were distinguishable from heterozygous babies where the Hb A levels were >1. per cent in different studies. However, there was some overlap in Hb A levels between heterozygotes and normals53-55. Sickle cell disease and Hb E thalassaemia have also been diagnosed in this way. On the other hand, experience in Thailand showed that while ? 0 thalassaemia homozygotes and HbE-? 0 thalassaemia compound heterozygotes could be diagnosed by HPLC analysis of foetal blood, ? ++ thalassae mia homozygotes may be misdiagnosed as heterozygotes56. Amniotic fluid cells have not been used extensively in India for prenatal diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies. Codon 15 (G? A), Codon 30 (G? C)] are common accounting for 85-95 per cent of mutant alleles. However, regional differences in their frequencies have been noted30,31,50,51 (Fig. 1). The prevalence of IVS 1 -5 (G? C), the most common mutation in India varies from 15-88 per cent in different States. Codon 15 (G? A) is the second most frequent mutation in Maharashtra and Karnataka and Codon 5 (-CT) is the third most common mutation in Gujarat. The -88 (C? T) and the Cap site +1 (A? C) mutations are more common in the northern region30,31,50. The 619 bp deletion is the most common mutation among the immigrant population from Pakistan. This knowledge on the distribution of mutations in different regions and in people of different ethnic backgrounds has facilitated prenatal diagnosis using 556 INDIAN J MED RES, OCTOBER 2011 Experience at National Institute Immunohaematology (NIIH), Mumbai of Bothfirstandsecondtrimesterprenataldiagnosis for the ? -thalassaemias and sickle cell disorders are done at National Institute of Immunohaematology, Mumbai, and over the last 25 years 2,221 pregnancies at risk have been investigated (Table II). While majority of the couples were at risk of having children with ? thalassaemia major, a significant number of couples at risk of having children with sickle cell disorders have been referred for prenatal diagnosis in the last 4 to 5 years. Our experience in western India has shown that there are still very few couples (G; or codon 35 ? (A? G) at alpha -beta chain interfaces. Ann Hematol 2009; 88 : 1269-71. 52. Old JM, Varawalla NY, Weatherall DJ. The rapid detection and prenatal diagno sis of ? -thalassemia in theAsian Indian and Cyproit populations in the UK. Lancet 1990; 336 : 834-7. 53. Rao VB, Natrajan PG, Lulla CP, Bandodkar SB. Rapid midtrimester prenatal iagnosis of beta-thalassaemia and other haemoglobinopathies using a non- radioactive anion exchange HPLC technique – an Indian experience. Prenat Diagn 1997; 17 : 725-31. 54. Wadia MR, Phanasgaokar SP, Nadkarni AH, Surve RR, Gorakshakar AC, Colah RB, et al. Usefulness of automated chromatography for rapid fetal blood analysis for second trimester prenatal diagnosis of beta-thalassemia. Prenat Diagn 2002; 22 : 153-7. 559 55. Rao S, Saxena R, Deka D, Kabra M. Use of HbA estimation by CE-HPLC for prenatal diagnosis of beta-thalassemia; experience from a tertiary care centre in north India: a brief report. Hematology 2009; 14 : 122-4. 56. Winichagoon P, Sriphanich R, Sae-Mgo WB, Chowthaworm J, Tantisirin P, Kanokpongsakdi S, et al. Application of automated HPLC in prenatal diagnosis of thalassemia. Lab Hematol 2002; 8 : 29-35. 57. Holzgreve W. Will ultrasound screening and ultrasound guided procedures be replaced by non-invasive techniques for the diagnosis of fetal chromosome anomalies? Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1997; 9 : 217-9. 58. Steele CD, Wapner RJ, Smith JB, Haynes MK, Jackson LG. Prenatal diagnosis using fetal cells isolated from maternal peripheral blood. Clin. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 39 : 801-13. 59. Mesker WE, Ouwerkerk-vn Velzen MC, Oosterwijk JC, Bernini LF, Golbus MS, Kanhai HH, et al. Two colour immunocytochemical staining of gamma and epsilon type hemoglobin in fetal red cells. Prenat Diagn 1998; 18 : 1131-7. 60. Takabayashi H, Kuwabara S, Ukita T, Ikawa K, Yamafuji K, Igarashi T. Development of non-invasive fetal DNA diagnosis from maternal blood. Prenat Diagn 1995; 15 : 74-7. 61. Cheung MC, Goldberg JD, Kan YW. Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia by analysis of fetal cells in maternal blood. Nat Genet 1996; 14 : 264-8. 62. Di Naro E, Ghezzi F, Vitucci A, Tannoia N, Campanale D, D’ Addario V, et al. Prenataldiagnosisof? -thalassemiausing fetal erythroblasts enriched from maternal blood by a novel gradient. Mol Hum Reprod 2000; 6 : 571-4. 63. Kolialexi A, Vrettou C, Traeger-Synodinos J, Burgemeister R, Papantoniou N, Kanavakis E, et al. Non invasive prenatal diagnosisof? -thalassemiausingindividualfetalerythroblasts isolated from maternal blood after enrichment. Prenat Diagn 2007; 27 : 1228-32. 64. D’Souza E, Sawant PM, Nadkarni AH, Gorakshakar A, Mohanty D, Ghosh K, et al. Evaluation of the use of monoclonal antibodies and nested PCR for non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of hemoglobinopathies in India. Am J Clin Pathol 2008; 130 : 202-9. 65. Lo YM, Corbetta N, Chamberlain PF, Rai V, Sargent IL, Redman CW, et al. Presence of fetal DNA in maternal plasma and serum. Lancet 1997; 350 : 485-7. 66. Lo YM, Tein MS, Lau TK, Haines CJ, Leung TN, Poon PM, et al. Quantitaive analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma and serum: implications for non invasive prenatal diagnosis. Am J Hum Genet 1998; 62 : 768-75. 67. Lun FMF, Chiu RWK, Allen Chan KC, Lau TK, Leung TY, Dennis Lo YM. Microfluidics digital PCR reveals a higher than expected fraction of fetal DNA in maternal plasma. Clin Chem 2008; 54 : 1664-72. 68. Li Y, Zimmermann B, Rusterholz C, Kang A, Holzgrave W, Hahn S. Size separation of circulating DNA in maternal plasma permits ready detection of fetal DNA polymorphisms. Clin Chem 2004; 50 : 1002-11. 69. Chiu RW, Lau TK, Leung TK, Chow KC, Chui DH, Lo YM. Prenatal exclusion of beta thalassemia major by examination of maternal plasma. Lancet 2002; 360 : 998-1000. 560 INDIAN J MED RES, OCTOBER 2011 beta thalassemia point mutation by MALDI – TOF mass spectrometry. Fetal Diagn Ther 2009; 25 : 246-9. Papasavva T, Kalikas I, Kyrri A, Kleanthous M. Arrayed primer extension for the noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of beta thalassemia based on detection of single nucleotide polymorphism. Ann N Y Acad Sci USA 2008; 1137 : 302-8. Li Y, Di Naro E, Vitucci A, Zimmermann B, Holzgreve W, Hahn S. Detection of paternally inherited fetal point mutations for beta thalassemia using size fractionated cell free DNA in maternal plasma. J Am Med Assoc 2005; 293 : 843-9. Chan K, Yam I, Leung KY, Tang M, Chan TK, Chan V. Detection of paternal alleles in maternal plasma for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis in beta thalassemia: a feasibility study in southern China. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repord Biol 2010; 150 : 28-33. Lo YMD. Non invasive prenatal diagnosis in 2020. Prenat Diagn 2010; 30 : 702-3. 70. Papasavva T, Kalakoutis G, Kalikas I, Neokli E, Papacharalambous S, Kyrri A, et al. Non-invasive prenatal diagnostic assay for the detection of beta thalassemia. Ann NY Acad Sci USA 2006; 1075 : 148-53. 71. Tungwiwat W, Fucharoen G, Fucharoen S, Ratanasiri T, Sanchaisuriya K, Sae- Ung N. Application of maternal plasma DNA analysis for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of Hb E beta thalassemia. Transl Res 2007; 150 : 319-25. 72. Lazaros L, Hatzi E, Bouba I, Makrydimas G, Dalkalitsis N, Stefos T, et al. Noninvasivefirsttrimesterdetectionofpaternal beta globin gene mutations and polymorphisms as predictors of thalassemia risk at chorionic villus sampling. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repord Biol 2008; 140 : 17-20. 73. Li Y, Di Naro E, Vitucci A, Grill S, Ahong XY, Holzgreve W, et al. Size fractionation of cell free DNA in maternal plasma improves the detection of a paternally inherited 74. 75. 76. 77. Reprint requests: Dr Roshan Colah, Scientist F, National Institute of Immunohaematology (ICMR), 13th Floor, NMS Bldg, KEM Hospital Campus, Parel, Mumbai 400 012, India e-mail: [email  protected] com

Health Care Economics Essay

The economics of United States health care has been through many changes over its history. There are multiple factors to what caused the changes to the health care system over time with changes such as technological advances in medicine and surgical devices, new medical discoveries, and financial laws pertaining to health care. Just as with other businesses, the health care industry’s economy would depend upon supply and demand of their services. Throughout the time that health care has been undergoing these changes, it remains that the economical situation in health care has been the main focal point to how well that health organizations in the United States will perform. In the early 1900s doctors were just beginning to cease being expected to offer care for free, medical care costs were finally becoming emphasized, and insurances were just getting involved into the health care industry (PBS, 2012). The idea of a national health care policy is first introduced by President Truman in 1945, he would be denied by the American Medical Association campaign against the idea. Eventually in 1960 the American Medical Association would develop a national policy as well that would be signed into law by President Johnson and would become the foundations for Medicare and Medicaid (Rebelo 2007). As of the past two decades, the cost of health care have rapidly been on the rise (PBS, 2012). As new medical discoveries occurred in health care and technology advanced, physicians became more capable of treating patients for their illnesses. Financing in medical organizations is important so that they may afford to do more research and obtain better technology, at the moment the health care industry is 17% of the United State’s Gross Domestic Product only expecting to rise even more as time continues. Majority of the funding for the health care industry is received through the government through Medicare and Medicaid programs. The rest of the funding is being provided by private investors. To understand how well that health care industries are doing, researchers evaluate the elasticity or inelasticity of the organization’s products. If it shown to be elastic, the organization is doing well selling the product or service which as the supply to it decreases, the price will rise. Inelasticity is likely showing that it is not performing as well, organizations are either uncertain about raising prices as the supply drops or the population is not willing to pay more for the service. They will also look at the microeconomics and macroeconomics to see how they are affecting the industry’s economic situation. Microeconomic will focus on how smaller or more particular aspects in the economy are affecting price-cost relationships. Macroeconomics will look at the economic situation as the entire country as a whole to examine what effects that may be causing. The health care industry’s economy continues to be a strong focus in the United States economy as even more focus is being poured into evaluating the health care policy situation within the United States and funding relating to it. The government programs that have been created with the health care industry are still in operation and being reformed to make adjustments that are as suitable as possible to the nation in terms of quality and affordability, attempting to offer the best care and technology possible while making it available to as many as possible without costing the country so much. Economists in the United States are examining the microeconomic and macroeconomic markets to help determine the performance of the industries and what course of action will be taken, though the spending on health care in the past few years has become a large issue for the United States. Through history with the start of health care economics to the current time, funding has been a large focusing issue in the United States taking a large portion of the nations gross domestic product, far surpassing that of other nations and will continue to be a main focusing issue for economists and political debates.

Alfieri

The play A View from the Bridge by Arthur Miller is a short play with nine main characters. One of these nine characters is Alfieri. He is the first character that the audience meets. Alfieri is a lawyer to whom Eddie Carbone goes to for advice in the middle of the play. Alfieri also plays a part role as a narrator. He is the character that starts and ends the play and gives the audience background detail as well as inside hints at what he thinks will happen.Alfieri's opening speech is a very long and detailed prologue with a lot of information for the audience. Some may say that it gets a bit boring as it is a lot to take in and in that sense Arthur Miller has taken a bit ofa gamble choosing to start his play off with something like that. It is an introductory speech that introduces the play to the audience and finishes it. Through this opening speech we learn a lot and it is a very thorough and informative piece of dialogue. One thing that we learn is that the events that are appro aching ill be bloody and tragic in their conclusions.Alfieri hints at the story and this is one of the tactics of keeping the audience interested. â€Å"sat there as powerless as l, and watched it run its bloody course. † This last sentence in his speech while he is alone to the audience tells us what is to come and gets us ready for what is about to unfold in this play. To start Offa play with a speech like Alfieri's, leaving the audience with this sentence creates an atmosphere right at the start of the play and it makes the audience want to find out hat he is trying to prepare them for.Alfieri also gives some background to the play and some history to the setting. He gives part of a Sicilian background which gives us a broader view and some background information of the setting. † .. in Sicily, form where their fathers came, the law has not been a friendly idea since the Greeks were beaten. † In most of the speech Alfieri is talking about what people thought of lawyers and how they were looked upon. A lawyer is a bad omen to them, something that is thought and seen negatively, unlucky to the neighbourhood. This tells us that the community is very superstitious. I am a lawyer. In this neighbourhood to meet a lawyer or a priest is unlucky. † the idea of law. â€Å".. the law has not been a friendly idea. † Alfieri gives his own personal history and uses this as an opportunity to introduce himself to the audience. He is also the one who introduces Eddie Carbone to the audience. This is where his narrator role comes in. Arthur Miller has given Alfieri a very important and creative character played like this as a double role. â€Å"l am a lawyer. † â€Å"l was born in Italy. I only came here when I was twenty five. â€Å"Eddie Carbone, a longshoreman working the docks from Brooklyn Bridge. † In his dialogue, Alfieri also gives a bit of the New York background with small details such as the specific setting he mentio ns. Although it seems like a long speech, in this prologue there is a large amount of information lying beneath it which emerges from it, and with all this information it is quite short in comparison. In it he also mentions history form way back in the Roman times, Caesar's years which was almost 2000 years ago. But this is Red Hook,† â€Å"since the Greeks were beaten†¦ â€Å".. that in some Caesar's year†¦ † He is saying in this speech that in those times till now law is frowned upon but things have changed since then. People have become more civilised now and that is why things have settled down.There is compromise now. Alfieri then goes on to say that one thing that hasn't changed since 2000 years ago, even though law is seen badly, that there will always be a Job for a lawyer. â€Å"now we settle for half, and I like it better. † â€Å"†¦ every few years there is still a case,† l no longer keep a pistol in my filing cabinet. â€Å"â⠂¬ ¦ Justice is very important here. † Alfieri's opening prologue is very important. In it he plays a commentator, getting the audience ready for the intensity of the plays meaning, hinting at what's going to background. He poses questions to the audience in his own way and explains and provides evidence on a number of things. He also comments on different things and gives a lot of information in this play and gives his opinion on them. He plays a very important part and provides the backbone to the play.

Contract Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Contract Law - Essay Example In some cases, it occurs that an individual fraudulently represents themselves to the other party as the owner of goods of another identifiable person. The law on the cases relating to such kind of conducts euphemistically describe them as cases of â€Å"mistaken identity†. However, such a description is often insufficient and unsatisfactory. A considerable number of judges are reported saying that the United Kingdom law is in a â€Å"sorry condition â€Å"regarding this legal aspect and that it is only the Parliament or the Lordship House that can remedy the situation.3 This paper focuses on these arguments by analyzing a case law, legal issues involved in it, and the legal issues involved in the case. Particularly, the paper will focus on Shogun Finance Ltd v Hudson [2003] UKHL 62 and the legal issues involved in the situation described by Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead. The law of contract describes a mistake as a belief erroneously created in a contract that specific facts relating to all or some parts of the contract are true whereas they are not. Usually, if such a mistake is found to exist in a contract, then that particular contract is rendered void.4 Lord Denning, in the case of Lewis v Avery held that a contract can be void if the plaintiff can prove that at the time of entering the agreement, he or she had believed that the identity of the defendant (the other party) was of critical importance because a plain belief is not adequate.5 The common law has identified only three forms of mistakes that can arise from a contract: the common mistake, the mutual mistake, and the unilateral mistake. From this identification it is clear that the mistake of identity does not exist. It is important to point out that none of the identified mistakes has adequately covered mistake of identity. This explains why there has been increasing concern regarding the description of the case by law as being unsatisfactory.6 A closer look of the case law shows that mista ken identity cases are few in number and do not occur in increasing frequency like the other types of mistakes. Nonetheless, this does not mean that mistaken identity is not a critical legal aspect in law of contract. As a matter of fact, mistaken identity cases are very crucial as they (just like other types of mistakes) amount to breach of contract if they occur and therefore it is important that it is addressed once and for all. Besides, a key objective of law is to achieve equity and justice. As such, failing to remedy the â€Å"sorry condition† of law covering mistaken identity cases will defeat the very of law as it may lead to unjust rulings.7 Often, cases of mistaken identity happen in simple contracts, that is, contracts formed without involvement of any legal formalities. Partnership agreements and sale of goods contract mostly take the dimension of simple contracts. Sales of goods are the most prone and mistaken identity cases frequently arise from sale of goods co ntract. The principle of nemo dat non quod habet forms the major interplay in the mistaken identity cases. This principle is a fundamental legal axiom that implies â€Å"no one [can] give what one does not have† and that â€Å"a person can only give as good a title as one possesses†

Operations Management Principles - The operational Management Essay

Operations Management Principles - The operational Management Challenge at the Inditex Group - Essay Example This report highlights the operational management challenges at Inditex, as well as successes in providing fast fashion merchandise to many different target markets, to determine how Inditex remains a clothing manufacturing leader among many different competitive entities internationally and within the European environment. Operational objectives and competitive advantages The goal of Inditex is to provide fast fashion merchandise, meaning that there is a rapid turnaround of existing inventory to ensure that the majority of clothing products do not have to be held in inventory, thereby reducing costs in inventory management. Inditex understands that fashion merchandise, especially with the younger markets most attracted to Inditex fashions, maintain a very short life cycle. In Zara, as one example, virtually every piece of merchandise is on display, with Zara holding only a few key pieces of the same piece of fashion products, thereby creating an image of exclusivity for discriminati ng customers (Ferdows, Lewis and Machuca 2003). Having an understanding of the industry and product lifestyles are absolutely critical as it provides the knowledge necessary to develop worthwhile future operational strategies (Ha-Brookshire and Lee 2010). The majority of Inditex’s fashion stores are still in the growth stage along the industry life cycle, an environment in which the global supply chain for fashion merchandise has increased the total volume of available smaller and larger production entities and where strategic alliances along the supply chain are becoming more well-developed. Therefore, the supply environment in the aforementioned growth stage provides Inditex with unique opportunities to procure raw materials that give Inditex the ability to have a rapid turnaround of fashion merchandise. What is unique about Inditex is that the company is able to move from the design phase to tangible, in-store delivery of finished fashion merchandise much more rapidly than its many other competitors. This is what provides Inditex with the significant competitive advantage. For instance, Zara maintains an in-house staff of approximately 300 designers who consistently upgrade current season fashions and work toward designing the next supply of fast fashion, unique merchandise (Ferdows, et al. 2003). The ability to procure enough raw materials to begin production within a 4-6 week lead time is unparalleled in the industry, supported by Inditex’s ability to produce 50 percent of its total fashion volume within its many self-owned production facilities (Ferdows, et al.). Hence, whilst Inditex is busy designing merchandise along its operational model, in-house production experts and a variety of outsourced garment producers (especially sewing capabilities) are working consistently on producing new and innovative fashions along the short lead time. Other competition in the industry have lead times that can be up to six months, thereby giving Zara con siderable competitive advantages over the majority of its fashion competitors. The aforesaid is the operational objective of Zara: to align its operational strategies and production capabilities to meet the strategic objective of exclusive fashion merchandising and production. The organisation,

Was Jesus Like Adam Before or After the Fall Research Paper

Was Jesus Like Adam Before or After the Fall - Research Paper Example In other words, Jesus was reached by sin but not contaminated. Outline Adam, Sin and Its Consequences to the World A. The Nature of Adam Before the fall According to Cairus, God created man in his own likeness, and gave man dominion over the earth. He created man to not only sing his praises, to manifest his glory and worship Him, but also to create a fellowship with Him. Man was created in God’s image, but was not a reflection of God, but was more like a painting – Cairus makes the example that the sun may reflect upon the water, and this is an image of the sun; a painting may also make an image of the sun. One, the reflection upon the water, represents the sun itself making an image; the other consists of a creation of the sun on a canvas. The way that God made man was more like the painting then the reflection upon the water. So, like a van Gogh making a self-portrait, God essentially created a self-portrait when he created man. Moreover, only man was created in the image of God, according to Cairus, and this was shown by the fact that the land the creatures of the world, created before God, were pronounced â€Å"g ood,† while the creation of man was pronounced by God to be â€Å"very good.† ... Cairus solves this conundrum by stating that the reason for this is God gave man â€Å"freedom† or free will. This is what makes man autonomous and individual, as opposed to being merely a reflection and image of God. Adam was given this freedom, and, when he was created he was considered to be â€Å"innocent† - this means that he was not yet tempted by sin, therefore he was pure and without sin. Adam and Eve, who was created from Adam's rib, were God's helpers on earth, and were created to serve Him and enjoy a happy communion with Him in paradise.3 God created Adam and Eve as a pair, and He celebrated the first marriage. God also stated that, as long as the first pair did not betray Him, that they could live in paradise for eternity and have dominion over all things.4 Fowler states that Adam and Eve, as the first representatives of humankind came to earth after a divine council, and the members of the Godhead chose to make mankind in the image of God. The dominion, co upled with the fact that man was created in God's image, meant that Adam and Eve were â€Å"crowned in God's glory and honor,† according to Fowler.5 Since they were created by God, Fowler states that they were to be totally obedient to God, and pledge allegiance only to Him. For Him, Adam and Eve were to give unconditional love and obedience, unreserved praise and absolute gratitude. They were also commanded to hold no other divinity above God. This would include the person's self – the self must never come before God, and this was one of the commandments upon Adam.6 Essentially, Adam was to put nothing before God, and put nothing between himself and God, and must reject the temptation to equate the self with

Communication Behaviors and Organizational Culture Research Paper

Communication Behaviors and Organizational Culture - Research Paper Example The two factors can apply individually or intertwine in an organization. In this context, organizational performance may refer to levels of customer satisfaction, quality, and quantity in production, sustainability, motivation, and compliance to set standards. Moreover, communication in the workplace is very fundamental since it defines how different stakeholders relate to an organization. On the other hand, organizational culture derives a lot of significance in an organization in that it defines the uniqueness of operations in the workplace. Notably, there can be an interface between communication behaviors and organizational culture since the design and implementation of organizational culture is the mandate of the same management. At the same time, the interface of communication behaviors among the managers and organizational culture can have subtle effects on the organization and its performance. This leads us to the research question, which seeks to establish how communication behaviors, organization culture, and their interface affect organizational performance. ... Organizational communication measures the levels of transmitting information about the organization from the organization to the stakeholders. It has the direct and indirect influence on organizational performance (Garnett et al, 2008). Notably, communication applies to all stakeholders in an organization. Indeed, there are two types of communication in an organization, which includes internal organizational communication and external organizational communication (Rho, 2009). Specifically, internal organizational communication may be horizontal, downward, or upward depending on the source and recipient of information. Downward communication is the most dominant and it involves the flow of information from the management to the subordinates. The information in this communication relates to job instruction, orders, job description, organizational goals, and company policies (Rho, 2009). Effective downward communication ensures that employees understand and adhere to the objectives, mis sion, and overall strategy of an organization thus improving its performance. Indeed, employees will seek to perform to the organization directives thus ensuring productivity that will reflect the organization’s aims, which will guarantee customer satisfaction and increased returns. On the other hand, upward communication refers to the flow of information from the subordinates to the management. Such information relates to work progress, challenges, opportunities, recommendations, aspects of other competitors, and feelings about the organization and the management (Rho, 2009).  Ã‚  

Cybersecurity Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cybersecurity - Coursework Example The convict individuals are known as hackers. Generally, hackers hack others computers with the help of internet for stealing organizational and personal information without any authorization in order to cause certain mental or physical harm to the victim in present or in future. In recent years, the role of cyber security has become quite prominent as has been identified by different nations and organizations throughout the world. Cyber security can play a vital role in order to identity the attempt of any such malicious activities by the cyber criminals and also to stop cybercrime from taking place by devising appropriate security measures. Furthermore, it is also observed that for identifying and punishing cybercrime offenders, government of the United States (US) has enacted certain laws which include â€Å"Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act† (CALEA), Computer Software Privacy and Control Act, Digital Millennium Copyright Act and Electronic Communications Pr ivacy Act among others (Global Legal Resources, 2012). With due consideration to the aspect, the paper intends to state about the motivation of the actors i.e. cyber criminals along with the role of cyber security to prevent cybercrime. ... spect of hacker culture represents the relationship between the hackers and modern society which discloses cultural attitudes about the relationship between the people along with technology (Thomas, 2003). Along with this motivational factor, there are also two factors which include intrinsic and extrinsic motivation further which also motivate hackers to take certain criminal steps. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation can be defined as the type of motivation in which an individual performs for enjoyment or interest rather than for gaining rewards (Woo, 2003). In relation to this aspect, it can be stated that hackers at times hack others’ systems in order to pass their time and to enjoy the situation while hacking. Generally, this influence arises from own-self than that of external influences. Moreover, extrinsic motivation can be defined as the external influences which help to meet the self-esteem. This motivation is devolved by individuals intentionally in order to win certa in rewards such as status, name and money among others (Woo, 2003). It can be observed that for making money, name and status, external motivation can influence hackers to commit such offences that are punishable by law by utilizing their skills in wrong direction. This is because hackers compete with their peers and rivals to earn more money and name. Contextually, it can be stated that the motivation of hackers/actors differ from situation to situation. There are certain factors which motivate hackers to hack others computer which include monetary gain, intellectual challenges, self-expression and peer recognition along with mischief among others. Monetary gain is one of the major causes which motivate cyber criminals to hack accounts prevailing in the banks. It is recognized that at times

Fatigue in Adolescents with Cancer Literature review

Fatigue in Adolescents with Cancer - Literature review Example t which the literature highlights for adolescents surviving chronic cancers – tuberculosis, Melanoma, Leukemia, or Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (Carroll, 2010). According to the contemporary medical research, the chances of adolescent survival in cancers by psychological treatments have increased, due which the activities regarding understanding the psychological concepts â€Å"quality of life† have increased too (Kelly, 2008). The medical practitioners for bringing up the effective care have come along to understand adolescents’ psychosocial consequences in-relation to the quality of life for surviving the cancer (Kelly, 2008). This is to give a close understanding on the concept of QoL which significantly relates to the adolescents’ survivorship pattern (Elizabeth, 2011). Meanwhile, the other majority of the practitioners are on the basic treatment procedures. They are concerned about the reduction of pain, difficulty and physiological fatigue which a cancer pat ient normally carries (Eilertsen et al., 2012). The contemporary literature of medicines gives a subjective explanation about adolescents’ the quality of life in cancer. There is no specific or clear definition about the concept, therefore the literature sticks to give broad and subjective explanation about the concept of the quality of life (Gibson, 2003). From a broad view, QoL can be classified in two types, psychological QoL and physiological QoL (Eilertsen et al., 2012). In this way, the literature uncovers two basic classifications which indicate that when an adolescent is in the survivorship period, it has both psychological and physiological fatigues affecting his or her psychological and physiological qualities of life (Eilertsen et al., 2012). Cancer fatigue relates to the quality of life. It has a... This paper stresses that adolescents having cancer abide in the poor quality of life situation, as they are continuously intervened by most serious and severe disease – cancer. World Health Organization describes quality of life as a psychological situation in which the person is happy, satisfied and socially active. QoL is one psychological concept that relates to adolescents’ psychological and social life behaviors. In this way, the literature uncovers two basic classifications of QoL, which are psychological and physiological fatigues affecting patient’s psychological and physiological qualities of life. This report makes a concluison that in the modern research and understanding, there are different psychological affects which young cancer patients have during the survivorship. There are influences such as separation anxiety, depression, stress, and sometimes, fear and paranoia. It depends on adolescents’ cancer state and also on the coping capability that how the patient resists and restricts cancer at the time of development. The contemporary literature uncovers that there are late affects in adolescent cancer patients’ life, which changes their sociological setting. There are cases reported in which the social quality of life of children during cancer is highly affected. There are cases in which the young survivors face the problem in attaining â€Å"normalcy† as they are stuck in between living and surviving at the time of cancer development. The influences can be reduced, if each segment is doing well to bring the high in-depth support for the survivor in c ancer.

MyReligionLab Assignment Week 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MyReligionLab Assignment Week 2 - Essay Example They also believe in the karma, the law of cause and effects that make an individual to create his own destiny by thoughts, words, and deeds. In the context of Vellaringat (2002), religion is a set of beliefs (Hindu beliefs) that that relate humanity to supernatural realities. This brings the art of worship and ritual practices as observed by the Hindus. Self seeking, through the intense meditation in order to realize the whole self identity does involve acknowledging the gods, according to the Hindu religion and beliefs. Many of the Hindus have a primary focus on fulfilling their social, moral, political, as well as cultural duties and responsibilities appropriately to their gods in order establish their positions in life. As it may seem, there are similarities with other religious traditions and beliefs in this context. The Christians and the Muslims societies as well believe in the supreme God who determines destiny and affect their social, cultural, as well as moral motives. Considering the Hindus beliefs, practices, and holidays, one similar fact that connects these religions to the people’s daily lives is the ir commitments to devotion, liberation, and knowledge on what they believe in their respective religions. It is therefore true that religious practices centers daily lives of many and dictates their social, traditional, and cultural

Anselms Cosmological Argument Essay Example for Free

Anselms Cosmological Argument Essay Anselm seeks to explain the existence of a greatest being, i. e. God. He approaches this task not via our experience of the universe, but rather attempts to explain it solely based upon reason. Anselm attempts to prove the existence of God by providing us with a logical explanation, based upon our understanding, definition, and necessity of God. It is inconceivable for God not to exist. There is a certain nature through which everything that is exists, Anselm explains, is caused to exist by something. Everything that is, exists by virtue of something, and nothing is able to exist through nothing. The underlying assumption here is that things do not exist through themselves for there is no need for their being. Leading to conclude that it is implausible that anything at all is able to exist because of nothing, and that nothing should exist because of something. Building upon earlier argument, Anselm concludes that â€Å"whatever is [†¦] does not exist except through something. † Since, according to him, this premise is true and since, as pointed out earlier in his argument, everything that is exists either through itself or through something, there must be one, or many, beings though which all things that are exist. Our existence and the existence of everything there is, therefore, must be explained by a virtue of a higher being, or several of them. Anselm identifies and explores several possibilities of existence of a higher being, or beings. He points out that there may be several beings, rather than one, that are the ultimate cause of everything that exists, and presents one with his critical analysis of such idea. Anselm argues that if there is more than one of such beings then they themselves must exist either through (a) one being, (b) separately through itself, or (c) mutually through one another. If, he states, these beings exist through one supreme being, then all things that exist cannot exist through more than one being. Following this premise, Anselm concludes that all things that exist must therefore exist through this one supreme being. If, however, there are many beings, which exist separately and each through itself, then there must be a certain â€Å"power or property of existing through self†, by which they are able to exist. Building upon this premise, Anselm goes on to explain that it is because of this particular â€Å"power or property† that each of these beings is able to exist. Thereby concluding that these beings exist by virtue of one greater power, without which they cannot exist. Once again we are back to the same argument that only one being can exist, for plurality does not explain itself. Lastly, a third alternative proposed by Anselm deals with beings existing mutually through one another. He argues that such thought is contrary to reason. For, it is irrational that â€Å"anything should exist through a being on which it confers existence. † In other words, there cannot be a being that is a giver and a taker. That, which exists by its own virtue and is yet dependent on itself for existence. Taking all of the arguments and points stated above, Anselm concludes that there can only be one greatest being, i. e. God, and it is through him that everything that is exists. If everything that is, exists by virtue of something, and nothing is able to exist through nothing, then God simply cannot be conceived not to exist. God is that, â€Å"which alone exists in the greatest and highest degree of all† and nothing greater can be conceived. For, everything that exists, exists through this greatest being, but it alone exists through itself. One aspect of Anselm’s argument that stands out in particular is a premise upon which the whole argument is based. Explicitly, â€Å"Everything that is, exists either through1 something, or through nothing. But nothing exists through nothing. For it is altogether inconceivable that anything should not exist by virtue of something. † This, he holds to be the self-evident truth. Once again, the underlying assumption here is that things do not exist through themselves for there is no need for their existence. Such things therefore cannot be the cause of their own existence. Therefore, it must exist by virtue of a greater being. BIBLIOGRAPHY S. D. Deane, (Trans. ), St. Anselm, Basic Writings (Second Ed. ), La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 1994.

New Industries in the Caribbean Essay Example for Free

New Industries in the Caribbean Essay Caribbean economies from their earliest periods of colonization were essentially agrarian based (during slavery). Economical activities included livestock farming and small farming done by the peasants. There were also trading and commerce which included the establishment of shops, inns and taverns. Large plantations were worked by a mass of slaves with the premier crop being Sugar Cane. When the colonizers first came to the West Indies they mainly grew crops such as coffee, cotton, ginger, banana and cocoa mainly for export. However during the second half of the 18th century, these crops lost their comparative advantage to sugar. When sugar experienced its depression the planters relaxed their stronghold over control of the land and some estate workers turned their attention to the peasant sector and other industries. NEW INDUSTRIES By the beginning of the twentieth century, the peasantry had begun to play a very important role in the diversification of the West Indian economies. The Royal Commissions before the Norman Commission, and the Norman Commissions had made recommendations for the development of the peasantry (Curtis: p 32). Many of the export crops recommended by the Norman Commission were already being cultivated by the peasantry. For these crops to have greater success, the peasantry would need capital for greater investment. But this capital was not forthcoming. This was due to the fact that they had limited capital, occupied small plots of land because they were charged a lot for these lands. Additionally the peasants cannot produce at subsistence level. The black peasantry in particularly faced a number of obstacles which included the increase in land prices, eviction from lands, refusal to subdivide and sell lands and also heavy taxations. The planters most of the times sold large pieces of lands for lower cost to the whites in comparison to the ex-slaves. Rice, which had been cultivated earlier as a subsistence crop in Guyana began to assume importance as a cash crop in the late nineteenth century. The abandonment of sugar cultivation on some estates made more land available, as did the opening up of riverain crown lands in 1898 on what for some were manageable terms of purchase. By 1900 government interest was being channeled through the board of agriculture ith conducted experiments in different rice varieties and supplied seed to the growers. A more objective was to develop a uniform grain size to reduce wastage in the milling process and by 1908 this had been substantially achieved. All of this stimulated further expansion so that, whereas in 1891 the land under rice amounted to only 4000 acres, there was a tenfold increase in the following two decades, and by 1917 for every ten acres planted in sugar, Guyana, eig ht acres were planted in rice. Expanding rice acreage was accompanied by the mushrooming of small mils. In 1914 there were 86 of them in existence. They were hardly elaborate structures but they were linked to the large mercantile firms in the capital and they controlled growers in the villages through a system of advances. Many of the millers, like many large rice growers were Indians who employed Indian labour, and the evidence suggests that ethnicity hardly guaranteed favourble treatment. In 1905 it was exporting to the Caribbean. Rice enjoyed considerable prosperity during the first war. In the inter-war period alternative sources of supply to the Caribbean market dried up and this provided the main basis for the steady expansion of the industry in Guyana. Guyana is by far the most important producer of rice in the Commonwealth Caribbean. There were about 20 thousand peasant farmers in 1952; by 1965 their numbers were believed to have more than doubled, reaching 45 thousand. There were 222 rice mills in 1960 and 199 in 1970. All were privately owned, except two which were owned and operated by the Rice Development Company. Bananas were first introduced into Jamaica in 1516. However the first exports took place in 1869 after the depression of sugar. As the industry flourished American companies came in to handle the trade as the peasants supplied bananas to a US [Boston] banana trader Lorenzo Dow Baker. Boston Fruit Company later formed to trade in Bananas with Caribbean and Central America which later became the United Fruit Company [UFCo]. By 1890 the value of Banana exports exceeded that of sugar and rum, and it retained this position except for a few years until the Second World War. By 1937 Jamaica provided twice as many stems as any other country in the world. It thus became a plantation crop-corporations and large entrepreneurs. Banana soon became the principal exports from Jamaica, and Windward Island. Trading partners also changed-Destination was now USA. During the war the industry declined because the ships could not be spared to transport the product. By the beginning of the nineteenth century coffee was also an important crop in Jamaica (The Banana production was done mainly by the Middle class mulattoes). During the depression sugar farmers in Trinidad turned their attention to cocoa which was the first major export of the island, and by 1900 it had become the major export once again. It retained this position until 1921 when Ghanaian cocoa began to swamp the world market. During that time too cocoa was also an important crop in St. Lucia, St. Kitts and St. Vincent. In the 1930’s citrus, which had been cultivated in the stricken cocoa areas became important. So too did Pineapples in the 19th century. Relatively small scale farmers earned cash for production of bananas, coffee, cocoa and pimento for exports. They also produced tubers, fruits and vegetables for domestic markets. A substantial part of small farming was for subsistence with relatively small surpluses for sale. Bauxite, tourism and urban-based manufacturing and services replaced export agriculture as the dominant sectors of the economy in the post-war era, as the British West Indies pursued a programme of industrialization-by-invitation The mineral resources which include bauxite, aluminum, gold et cetera have been developed by foreign capital and for the export market, to a much greater extent than the main agricultural products. In Guyana the American-owned Bauxite industry shipped its first load of ore in 1922. Expansion was steady throughout the inter-war period but it was not until the second war that bauxite became an important force in the economy. The Jamaican bauxite industry was developed by American companies after the second war. Demand for aluminum by the United States military and space programmes and by the automobile and other consumer goods industries created a lucrative market for bauxite and aluminum. As of such in 1957 Jamaica became the world’s leading bauxite producer and the main U. S. supplier. The U. S. dollar earnings from this new export financed the import of capital goods manufacturing industries that were set up to produce for the growing domestic and regional markets. The investment cycle of the multinational bauxite mining companies began topping offs as the decade of the 1960s drew to a close. Bauxite and aluminum thus replaced sugar and bananas as the leading export product after the Second World War. In 1964 Jamaican bauxite industry had over 800 registered manufacturing establishments including a cement factory, cigarette factories, breweries and bottling plants, extiles, clothing factories and plant producing soap, margarine and edible oil. In February 1967 an agreement was announced between the Jamaican government and an American metal-fabrication company to erect an aluminum plant in Jamaica. The petroleum industry in Trinidad and Tobago is the oldest mineral industry in the common-wealth Caribbean. The first successful well dates back to 1857 but it was not until the first decade of this century that the industry was established. By 1909 the country was exporting oil and by 1919 five refineries were in operation. The industry is largely owned and controlled by foreigners. The production of crude oil is mainly in the hands of four companies-Texaco, Shell, Trinidad Northern Area owned by Trinidad Tesoro, Shell and Texaco as equal partners. However by 1980 the government had purchased all foreign operations except Amoco. The tourist industry was developed after the Second World War, and this two is foreign owned and controlled. This industry is an offshoot of the banana and bauxite industry especially in Jamaica. The establishment and development of the tourist industry were facilitated by incentive legislation and special institutions. Jamaica passed the Hotels Aid Law, 1944, granting accelerated depreciation allowances and duty-free importation of materials for the construction and furnishing of hotels, and the Hotel Incentives Law, 1968, granting tax holidays and other concessions. The Hotel Aids Act passed in Barbados in 1967 allows duty free importation of building materials and equipment and grants a tax holiday of ten years. And all three territories set up Tourists Boards to promote and service the industry. As in the other generating sectors of the economies, there is a large proportion of foreign ownership in the tourist industry. In 1971 thirty-five per cent of the hotels in Jamaica were wholly foreign owned, 56 per cent wholly locally owned and 9 per cent joint ventures. Foreign ownership was more pronounced in Barbados. Foreigners owned 61 per cent of the capacity there: 33 per cent was owned by nationals of the United Kingdom. 16 per cent by Canadians and 12 per cent by Americans. Barbadians owned 34 per cent, and 5 per cent was jointly owned. Local ownership was dominant (80 per cent) among the smaller establishments which provided 25 per cent of the total capacity. Trade and commerce was also taking place in many places in the British West Indies as well. According to Beckles and Shepherd (1993) â€Å"export trade in the British Islands showed in a number of the units spectacular increases to the peak of prosperity between 1929 and 1940. † British Guiana traded with Europe and North America, commodities such as sugar cane, coffee and fruits. Trinidad exported petroleum products such as oil to places such as North America and the United Kingdom. Jamaica too traded tropical fruits, sugar cane, coffee, cocoa and other commodities with Europe and North America. In the late 1950s, Jamaica became the biggest supplier of bauxite to the United States. RACE: The Indians are concentrated mainly on the sugar estates while the Africans are concentrated in the villages and the towns. The Africans have always been more mobile geographically and socially and the chief supporters of the urbanization movement. They provide the overwhelming majority of the labour force in the bauxite industry and mining camps in the interior of Guyana, and the petroleum industry in Trinidad, and the bulk of the factory and service workers in both countries. Until the 1950s they occupied a somewhat monopolistic position in the white-collar and professional positions. The Indians supply the bulk of the field sugar workers and also the rice producers in Guyana. -Europeans owned most of the wealth-producing assets in the colonial economy. The indigenous Ihere, imported labour] populations were allowed to engage in small-scale peasant farming on the fringes of large white-owned plantations but mainly relegated to providing cheap labour for the white settlers in the expanding corporate economy. Where this posed problems, intermediary racial groups (Chinese, Indians, etc. ) were brought in to fill the gaps in labour supply. As export staples increased the wealth base of the colonial economy and as some diversification into minerals, tourism and manufacturing increased that wealth base further, commerce and services expanded. This opened up opportunities for small-scale capital and smaller entrepreneurial firms to operate alongside the large white-controlled corporations. (Thompson: p 244). In Jamaica, this intermediate minority group comprised immigrant white ethnics like the Lebanese and Jews (who joined a much older community of Jamaican Jews dating back to the period of colonization and settlement) and the Chinese, whose upper and middle echelons, occupying a shopkeeper niche, secured for the group the real and/or symbolic function of social whites. A racially mixed brown middle class also formed a component of this minority, intermediary ethnic group. The traditional white planter class was displaced both by foreign corporate capital, whose interests were concentrated on sugar, and later bauxite and tourism, and the intermediary ethnic groups with whom they eventually merged. The latter groups formed a domestic merchant and manufacturing sector alongside the transnational enclaves. A black rural middle class emerged on the basis of medium-sized holdings concentrating on export crops such as bananas, pimento, coffee and citrus. They comprised a tiny minority of the rural population, however, most of whom occupied a range between full-time peasants and full-time proletarians. The race related dualism of Caribbean economy was classically exhibited in the division between the (TNC or Jamaica-white-owned) plantation and (black) peasant economies of rural Jamaica. In 1938, this division was reflected in a tenure system which concentrated over fifty per cent of agricultural land into some 800 holdings and left nearly 100,000 poor peasants and their families with twelve per cent of the land* (Post, 1981: 2-3). In addition, the black peasant economy was itself internally stratified, partly along the lines of the division between export production and domestic food crop production, which was itself related to size of holding. In addition, there were roughly 80,000 households at the lower margins of the peasantry with an average of a quarter of an acre each. .A significant bureaucratic and professional black middle class emerged, but Blacks failed to challenge the entrenched economic positions of the intermediary-ethnic elites. In the meantime, economic frustration and disfranchisement led large numbers of peasant and working class Blacks to participate in a massive outward migration to Britain and a large-scale exodus from rural to urban areas, which translated rural poverty into urban ghettoes and urban poverty (ibid. : 252). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, many ethnic elites from the BWI began migrating abroad. This created unanticipated and unexpected new openings for black entry into the entrepreneurial class and facilitated large-scale entry of Blacks into the middle and upper levels of private sector management (ibid: 254). Blacks became well established within the corporate managerial elite and gained a foothold in many sectors of the economy manufacturing, construction, business services, tourism, commerce and agriculture alongside the still dominant minority ethnic groups. Their enterprises tended to be smaller, but a few were large. Other developments were the growth of import-trade higglering, which represented an expansion and in some cases a very lucrative enhancement of a traditional female working class role. The big corporate sector enterprises in insurance, banking, distribution, manufacturing, hotels and services remained under the predominant ownership of the economically dominant minority Jews, Whites, Lebanese and Browns. Indeed, migration of some of the less important families appears to have facilitated a consolidation and expansion of corporate ownership among the biggest capitalist families.

Are major programs considered temporary of permanent organizations

Are major programs considered temporary of permanent organizations From a management perspective, should major programs be regarded as permanent or temporary organizations? Change is permanent therefore all organisations are temporary. So does it matter if management regards major programs as temporary or permanent organisations? The answer is it does. Major programs are a social construct and there appears to be significant differences in culture, behaviour and performance that vary with the perception an organisation attaches to its lifespan. In this essay we will ask what major programs are, how they come about, what their purpose is, how they are planned and how all of this should be taken into account when considering whether they should be regarded as temporary or permanent organisations. We will explore cultural and behavioural characteristics to be found in permanent and temporary organisations and consider how this affects performance and outcomes. We will refer to theories of organisational design to see how major programs might be classified and structured in order to assess whether a temporary or permanent organisation is best suited to eff ective management. Finally, we will come to a conclusion about; whether, from a management perspective, projects should be regarded as temporary or permanent. Major programs can be viewed as the big version of programs which, themselves, are a collection of projects being operated for a common goal. Big in this context  [1]  refers to long duration (c7-10 years), and high cost (>$1bn). Beneath the surface there are many other complicating variables that impart each major program with its individual character. These include but are not limited to: significant bespoke product customisation, unprecedented scale, significant reputational factors, transformational change, continuous changes throughout life. With all this combined they present a much more complex and challenging environment than the single project. Major programs are commissioned in order to deliver a step change on a strategic scale. Quinn (1978) says they are a response to change deficit. Thiry (2007) says the need to change is usually caused by an unsatisfactory condition (p.119) which could be unsatisfied ambition. As they consume a substantial share of the organisations resource and capital for a sustained period they are authorised through the strategic plan. The need to maintain this link to strategic intent creates one of the most important issues and challenges relating to temporary or permanent form. In his widely respected work The Rise and Fall of Strategic Planning Mintzberg makes the argument that plans and strategy are not all deliberate. They operate within an unstable world where factors beyond organisational control are constantly interacting to create new realities. In this world the intended strategy is impacted or replaced by what Mintzberg terms as emergent strategy. Due to their duration, major programs m ust adjust to changed circumstances by making changes to their own plans and objectives. By virtue of their scale they also need to feed back into the strategy planning environment as an input, which will in turn influence emergent strategy via a Double Loop process (Thiry and Deguire 2007). From a company management perspective it is therefore important that a major program is operated through an organisation whose life expectancy and philosophy is aligned with strategic intent rather than specific start and end points along a simple time line. In the opinion of Thiry this requires regular reviews to ensure the program is on target, requiring adjustment and still needed. The termination date that is determined by the realisation of benefits rather than a handover to operations at product completion (Thiry 2007). Taking this notion still further, some major programs are now organised around a Build Own Operate (BOO) model, Jaafari (2007). BOOs are permanent organisations designed to counter the risk that project teams see themselves as temporary organisations who are not involved in realising benefits. To theorists like Thiry the link between the major program organisation and strategy is paramount. He states that programs need to produce business level benefits and are a link between strategy and projects Thiry (2007) p.114). So from its inception to its termination point the life of a major program is governed by strategic delivery. The role of the plan also has an influence on the practicalities of working via a temporary or permanent structure. Project teams organised according to conventional project management standards work best with fixed and accurate plans. The plan is the vehicle for their organisation. By approving the plan the permanent organisation is effectively creating a contract that delegates authority to a local organisation Ives (2005) p.45 that can take decisions and act quickly without constantly referring to the chain of command as it goes about its business. This style of project management, works well with a well-defined and accurate plan. But the plan for a ten year major program costing $1bn is inevitably going to be inaccurate (ref Mintzberg). The role of the external environment is likely to be greater, the program leader will be forced to spend time dealing with outside bodies (regulators, pressure groups) Hobbs and Miller (1988) p.147, there will be a need to appraise and review Thir y (2007) p.133 and, with so much company resource tied up in its operation, the program has a role to play in institutional learning, staff training and development. These fluid conditions do not support the fixed plan model. They are more familiar to general managers in a permanent organisation than project managers in a temporary organisation. This creates a tension in organisational design. The fact that project management has become the popular engine of change even leading to colonisation and the projectification of society Maylor et al (2006) p.664 testifies to dissatisfaction with past performance. Major programs had a history of failing even before they were called major programs. The adoption of a project approach is proof that organisations need special help to overcome internal resistance and opposition to strategic change. The project based temporary organisation offers the promise of being more single-minded, target driven, dynamic, better at lateral communication, fast er at decision taking and acting, undistracted, specialised and clear in mission. To explore the implications of adopting a temporary organisation structure in more detail it is useful to refer to A theory for the temporary organisation Lundin, R.A. and Soderholm, A. (1995). This theory refers to basic concepts of Time, Task, Team and Transition. It suggests that permanent organisations have a view of the world that is based on their presence continuing forever. By contrast temporary organisations use time as a primary measure. Key events actions are dimensioned against a linear time-line. Whilst permanent organisations are accountable for financial performance, the temporary organisation is given dispensation from fiscal contributions and any other distractions. The temporary organisation (Team) is funded to deliver an output which will eventually be transferred (via Transition) to the permanent organisation who will use it to create value in line with the strategic intent. The temporary organisation could be regarded as an entrepreneurial substitution for market pricing. According to the theory the temporary organisation passes through a sequence of phases that begin when a group promotes the Task for the project (Action based entrepreneurialism). Fragmentation of commitment building occurs when the team decouples from the organisation from other past, contemporary or even future sequences of activities. Planned isolation describes the process where the team closes itself away by deliberately isolating the organisation to execute the plan for which the whole operation should proceed like a train moving at high speed towards the end station without unwanted stops. Institutionalised Termination describes the process where the team is recoupled to the organisation and delivers their output to operations via a bridging process. Although this sequence would support a conventional project, a temporary organisation following this behaviour is unlikely to successfully span a ten year major program lifecycle. The emphasis on isolation, time based delivery and a fixed plan is unrealistic. Over a ten year period the temporary and permanent organisation will need to systematically exchange data, staff and revised plans. Splendid isolation with high speed delivery and no unwanted stops is not practical. Lundin and Soderholm only considered two types of project. Unique where the project was exploring new ground and repetitive which was a project (like construction) based on previously tried and tested plans. To move the discussion forward it would be useful to consider how a program might be classified in order to create an appropriate organisational design that fits the needs of strategy. In the case of major programs even repetitive projects (for example bridge building) present sufficient local variation for the managers to feel their task is unique. To consider whether temporary or permanent is best it would be useful for management to be able to assess the context of their specific project. Shenhars Diamond Model Shenhar (2007) based on contingency theory is useful for this. It appears to be applicable to the full spectrum of projects from single project to major program. Shenhar eschews the one size fits all p.10 Shenhar (2007) methodology of standard project management in favo ur of using classical contingency theory to address the need for adapting the right style to the right project Shenhar (2007). Having studied 600 projects Shenhar developed a view using Uncertainty and change, Complexity and Pace (UCP) as dimensions for plotting project profiles in his Diamond Model. To obtain readings to feed into the model managers are asked to follow a three step process to assess the Environment, Product and Task for the project. The goal is to use this data to plot a project profile that can then be used to identify specific managerial activities, decisions and style that are best appropriate for each level and each project type. The UCP model was expanded into NTCP with 13 readings on a four dimensional scale. Figure 1 NTCP Model (c) Shenhar 2006 (Reinventing Project Management) The system allows management to map out the scope / profile of a project with each point along the four dimensions analysed by variables giving relevant advice. A major program might well have a Complexity that is described at the Array level (large widely dispersed collections of systems function together to achieve a common purpose). Shenhars system states the Project Organization for this should be: An umbrella organization usually a program office to coordinate subprojects; many staff experts: technical, administrative, finance, legal etc. p.191 Shenhar (2007) Wiley. But he does not apply contingency theory to the structuring of an organisation. He also takes a conventional view on project lifetime. Though he is dismissive of narrow project management by Triple Constraints (cost, time and scope) he accepts the norm that projects can be seen as temporary organisations within organisations. The use of contingency and organisational theory in project organisation design is purposefully addressed by Molloy and van Donk. In their paper From organising projects to projects as organisations they detect a turn to a focus on structural, contextual and contingent factors or projects that supports an exploration of the relevance of organisational theory to project management p.131 Molloy et al (2008) They refer to the work of Mintzberg which bases organisational structure on nine design parameters influenced by five contingency factors, to map types of project to Mintzbergs five organisation structures (Simple, Machine bureaucracy, Professional bureaucracy, Divisionalised form, Adhocracy). Although major programs were not specifically included in this exercise Molloy and van Donk encourage the view that under different circumstances different organisational structures will be needed to be successful p.130. The message that is evolving for management from this exploration is that the question of whether major programs should be regarded as temporary or permanent organisations is entwined in a wide range of threads. Context, adaptation, flexibility, strategic alignment and a departure from the rigid standardisation of project management appear to be present. This is not a concern if you take the view that major programs can hold both permanent and temporary status. If you also believe it is possible to design a temporary organisation with a different management structure to the standard project management approach, you open the door to organisational theory and a contingency based approach and, this seems worthwhile. Organisational designers like Galbraith provide access to theories that have grappled with issues that are currently challenging project management and major project management. In particular, the view that organisations compete and gain advantage through organisational structure (Ref like the New Management Paradigm Gareis (2007) p254. The need for wider thinking is apparent from the realisation that major programs are capable of evolving from start-up to termination over ten years whilst passing through phases where they develop into large-scale enterprises involving many participants divided across many activities and sub-projects. There are obvious parallels with the way that permanent organisations develop under similar conditions. For management who have given the go ahead on a strategic plan with a ten year timeframe and a $1bn budget there are potential benefits in a contingency based process that uses Galbraiths Star system Galbraith et al (2002). This works through a dedica ted organisational design process that starts with Strategy and progresses through Structure, Processes, Rewards system and People planning (including policies on training and development). This seems a sensible alternative to a one size fits all philosophy that presumes a project is a temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product or service. PMI (2000). At this point we have travelled some distance from the original question about whether major programs should be regarded as permanent or permanent organisations. We started with strategic alignment because this is so important given the scale and importance of major programs. This was shown to be difficult to maintain using an approach based on project management in a temporary organisation that is narrowly managed by methods built around the Triple Constraint of time, cost and scope (Shenhar 2007). Major programs require input from many of the behaviours and methods used by permanent organisations. But this has to be managed carefully. Major programs still require the benefits of separation from the permanent organisation that accrue from successfully harvesting project virtues of dynamism and commitment to change. As long as project methodology is not allowed to gum-up progress with unhelpful adherence to rigid controls and time based management, it can still offer an escape from t he failure of permanent organisations to adopt change and give up bureaucratic structures. In search of a way to combine project management with appropriate organisational theory we saw how to classify a project using contingency theory and we were introduced to the Star framework that could be adapted to the management of major programs. Organisational theory has covered much of the ground that leads to discussion over whether major programs should be regarded as temporary or permanent organisations. Contingency theory and organisational design theory offers a way to design a delivery organisation that blends the benefits of both worlds. The conclusion from this discussion is definite. From a management perspective the decision to establish a permanent or temporary organisation for major projects should always be contextual. The start point is strategy. From this position management has to take account of the characteristics of the project and its environment. Calling on frameworks of analysis, a design should be formulated that maximises organisational efficiency in terms of project management, benefits delivery and strategic fit. At the end of this process, having maximised their prospects for success, the designers should step back and regard their creation. From this perspective, where they are standing at a safe distance from professional dogma, they can relax and observe whether what they have created a permanent or temporary organisation, or both.

Technology Used on the Military Battlefield Essay examples -- Computer

Technology Used on the Military Battlefield In today’s busy world of technology, where it seems like we can hardly keep up with the daily advances being made, the United States Military is posed on the cutting edge. The military spends billions of dollars each year on electronic technology research with private firms such as International Telegraph and Telephone Aerospace/Communications Division (ITT A/CD). There is a wide range of uses for computers on today’s battlefield. Two of the major areas include communications, and battlefield management systems. All of these systems are just parts of the military’s tactical internet. The Key factor on the battlefield is communications. Excellent communication is necessary to keep all units working in unison, both on the front lines and in tactical command and control centers in the rear element. The United States Military and ITT A/CD developed the Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS) family. In 1988 the first SINCGAR was released for testing. At this point the SINCGAR was a basic voice only communicati...

Hate Speeches -- Rights Equality Papers

Hate Speeches What do the words Cracker, Kike, Nigger, Jap, Chinc, Faggot, Queer, Dike and Spic all have in common? They are all derogatory remarks that humans call one another on a daily basis. Why can people use these terms and not have to worry about receiving any punishment or any ridicule? The reason is because of the First Amendment right of free speech. The first amendment gives people the right to basically say anything that comes to mind whether it is something nice or something like a derogatory remark. The first amendment is good and freedom of speech has its advantages like most things, but however, it also has its disadvantages. The disadvantages are that people can say words that are extremely hurtful to someone and nothing will happen to the one saying it. Most people will have a bigger problem with the people who are the victim, for stating that their rights were being violated. The first amendment rights do have certain restrictions on them as of now, such as yo u are able to say what you so choose as long as it does not infringe on any other persons rights. In my opinion the first amendment right should have restrictions or more restrictions than what it has now. Restrictions that deal with the derogatory remarks in public, many think that this will not work, but with the proper guidelines and cooperation I believe that we as a nation can have derogatory remarks not hurt anyone, or be said in public, where they can be heard by everyone not only the person who is the target of the name calling. Many people have opinions on the subject of free speech. Censorship of free speech is something that the random â€Å"Joe Shmo† can argue against because he feels that he will not be ab... ... against the KKK, they will also be removed and the proper punishment, will be served justice. As one can see, the bill does not and will not discriminate against a certain group or groups that are known for having such views and causing such problems in public. Many people say don’t take there free speech away, because of racial slurs and discrimination, but it not taking it away, they have the right to say it anywhere else, but in public. Some same why not just educate them? The reason for the censorship and not educating them is because people are stubborn when it comes to their beliefs and the way they were raised. People will never learn to deal with racial differences, and by trying to educate them we will be wasting money and time and efforts of the nation and the state governments. Education will not work, but censorship of free speech in public will.

Analysis of Emily Dickinsons The Bustle in a House Essay -- Dickinson

Analysis of Emily Dickinson's The Bustle in a House The Bustle in a House is a poem by Emily Dickinson about the painful loss one feels after the death of a loved one. Dickinson was quite familiar with the kind of pain expressed in her poem. Her father, mother, nephew, and three close friends, all died within an eight-year period. It is no small wonder that a common theme in Dickinson s poetry is death. She uses many literary devices, including structure, imagery, figurative language, sound devices, and capitalization; to convey the hurt one experiences when a loved one passes on.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The structure of   The Bustle in a House   is very interesting. It is a short poem, only two stanzas long. Both stanzas are made up of a single sentence. With the exception of a lone dash at the end of the first stanza, and the period that ends the sentence, there is no punctuation. All of these factors add up to make the poem have a very brisk pace. The pace makes it seem that after death, one is supposed to just pick up and go on as usual.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Dickinson also uses imagery to add to the th...

The Vampire Diaries: The Struggle Chapter Six

Stefan sat in the Gilbert living room, agreeing politely with whatever it was Aunt Judith was saying. The older woman was uncomfortable having him here; you didn't need to be a mind reader to know that. But she was trying, and so Stefan was trying, too. He wanted Elena to be happy. Elena. Even when he wasn't looking at her, he was aware of her more than of anything else in the room. Her living presence beat against his skin like sunlight against closed eyelids. When he actually let himself turn to face her, it was a sweet shock to all his senses. He loved her so much. He never saw her as Katherine any more; he had almost forgotten how much she looked like the dead girl. In any case, there were so many differences. Elena had the same pale gold hair and creamy skin, the same delicate features as Katherine, but there the resemblance ended. Her eyes, looking violet in the firelight just now but normally a blue as dark as lapis lazuli, were neither timid nor childlike as Katherine's had been. On the contrary, they were windows to her soul, which shone like an eager flame behind them. Elena was Elena, and her image had replaced Katherine's gentle ghost in his heart. But her very strength made their love dangerous. He hadn't been able to resist her last week when she'd offered him her blood. Granted, he might have died without it, but it had been far too soon for Elena's own safety. For the hundredth time, his eyes moved over Elena's face, searching for the telltale signs of change. Was that creamy skin a little paler? Was her expression slightly more remote? They would have to be careful from now on. He would have to be more careful. Make sure to feed often, satisfy himself with animals, so he wouldn't be tempted. Never let the need get too strong. Now that he thought of it, he was hungry right now. The dry ache, the burning, was spreading along his upper jaw, whispering through his veins and capillaries. He should be out in the woods – senses alert to catch the slightest crackle of dry twigs, muscles ready for the chase – not here by a fire watching the tracery of pale blue veins in Elena's throat. That slim throat turned as Elena looked at him. â€Å"Do you want to go to that party tonight? We can take Aunt Judith's car,† she said. â€Å"But you ought to stay for dinner first,† said Aunt Judith quickly. â€Å"We can pick up something on the way.† Elena meant they could pick up something for her, Stefan thought. He himself could chew and swallow ordinary food if he had to, though it did him no good, and he had long since lost any taste for it. No, his†¦ appetites†¦ were more particular now, he thought. And if they went to this party, it would mean hours more before he could feed. But he nodded agreement to Elena. â€Å"If you want to,† he said. She did want to; she was set on it. He'd seen that from the beginning. â€Å"All right then, I'd better change.† She glanced through the doorway, to the empty living room, and said, â€Å"It's all right. They're almost healed already. See?† She tugged her lacy collar down, twisting her head to one side. Stefan stared, mesmerized, at the two round marks on the fine-grained skin. They were a very light, translucent burgundy color, like much-watered wine. He set his teeth and forced his eyes away. Looking much longer at that would drive him crazy. â€Å"That wasn't what I meant,† he said brusquely. The shining veil of her hair fell over the marks again, hiding them. â€Å"Oh.† â€Å"Come in!† As they did, walking into the room, conversations stopped. Elena looked at the faces turned toward them, at the curious, furtive eyes and the wary expressions. Not the kind of looks she was used to getting when she made an entrance. It was another student who'd opened the door for them; Alaric Saltzman was nowhere in sight. But Caroline was, seated on a bar stool, which showed off her legs to their best advantage. She gave Elena a mocking look and then made some remark to a boy on her right. He laughed. Elena could feel her smile start to go painful, while a flush crept up toward her face. Then a familiar voice came to her. â€Å"Elena, Stefan! Over here.† Gratefully, she spotted Bonnie sitting with Meredith and Ed Goff on a loveseat in the corner. She and Stefan settled on a large ottoman opposite them, and she heard conversations start to pick up again around the room. By tacit agreement, no one mentioned the awkwardness of Elena and Stefan's arrival. Elena was determined to pretend that everything was as usual. And Bonnie and Meredith were backing her. â€Å"You look great,† said Bonnie warmly. â€Å"I just love that red sweater.† â€Å"She does look nice. Doesn't she, Ed?† said Meredith, and Ed, looking vaguely startled, agreed. â€Å"So your class was invited to this, too,† Elena said to Meredith. â€Å"I thought maybe it was just seventh period.† â€Å"I don't know ifinvited is the word.† replied Meredith dryly. â€Å"Considering that participation is half our grade.† â€Å"Do you think he was serious about that? He couldn't be serious,† put in Ed. â€Å"Ray? Oh, Ray. I don't know, around somewhere, I suppose. There's a lot of people here.† That was true. The Ramsey living room was packed, and from what Elena could see the crowd flowed into the dining room, the front parlor, and probably the kitchen as well. Elbows kept brushing Elena's hair as people circulated behind her. â€Å"What did Saltzman want with you after class?† Stefan was saying. â€Å"Alaric,† Bonnie corrected primly. â€Å"He wants us to call him Alaric. Oh, he was just being nice. He felt awful for making me relive such an agonizing experience. He didn't know exactly how Mr. Tanner died, and he hadn't realized I was so sensitive. Of course, he's incredibly sensitive himself, so he understands what it's like. He's an Aquarius.† â€Å"With a moon rising in pickup lines,† said Meredith under her breath. â€Å"Bonnie you don't believe that garbage, do you? He's a teacher; he shouldn't be trying that out on students.† â€Å"He wasn't trying anything out! He said exactly the same thing to Tyler and Sue Carson. He said we should form a support group for each other or write an essay about that night to get our feelings out. He said teenagers are all very impressionable and he didn't want the tragedy to have a lasting impact on our lives.† â€Å"Oh, brother,† said Ed, and Stefan turned a laugh into a cough. He wasn't amused, though, and his question to Bonnie hadn't been just idle curiosity. Elena could tell; she could feel it radiating from him. Stefan felt about Alaric Saltzman the way that most of the people in this room felt about Stefan. Wary and mistrustful. â€Å"Itwas strange, him acting as if the party was a spontaneous idea in our class,† she said, responding unconsciously to Stefan's unspoken words, â€Å"when obviously it had been planned.† â€Å"What's even stranger is the idea that the school would hire a teacher without telling him how the previous teacher died,† said Stefan. â€Å"Everyone was talking about it; it must have been in the papers.† â€Å"But not all the details,† said Bonnie firmly. â€Å"In fact, there are things the police still haven't let out, because they think it might help them catch the killer. For instance,† she dropped her voice, â€Å"do you know what Mary said? Dr. Feinberg was talking to the guy who did the autopsy, the medical examiner. And he said that there was no blood left in the body at all. Not a drop.† Elena felt an icy wind blow through her, as if she stood once again in the graveyard. She couldn't speak. But Ed said, â€Å"Where'd it go?† â€Å"Well, all over the floor, I suppose,† said Bonnie calmly. â€Å"All over the altar and everything. That's what the police are investigating now. But it's unusual for a corpse not to haveany blood left; usually there's some that settles down on the underside of the body. Postmortem lividity, it's called. It looks like big purple bruises. What's wrong?† â€Å"Your incredible sensitivity has me ready to throw up,† said Meredith in a strangled voice. â€Å"Could we possibly talk about something else?† â€Å"You weren't the one with blood all over you,† Bonnie began, but Stefan interrupted her. â€Å"I don't know,† said Bonnie, and then she brightened. â€Å"That's right, Elena, you said you knew – â€Å" â€Å"Shut up, Bonnie,† said Elena desperately. If there ever were a placenot to discuss this, it was in a crowded room surrounded by people who hated Stefan. Bonnie's eyes widened, and then she nodded, subsiding. Elena could not relax, though. Stefan hadn't killed Mr. Tanner, and yet the same evidence that would lead to Damon could as easily lead to him. Andwould lead to him, because no one but she and Stefan knew of Damon's existence. He was out there, somewhere, in the shadows. Waiting for his next victim. Maybe waiting for Stefan – or for her. â€Å"I'm hot,† she said abruptly. â€Å"I think I'll go see what kinds of refreshmentsAlaric has provided.† Stefan started to rise, but Elena waved him back down. He wouldn't have any use for potato chips and punch. And she wanted to be alone for a few minutes, to be moving instead of sitting, to calm herself. Being with Meredith and Bonnie had given her a false sense of security. Leaving them, she was once again confronted by sidelong glances and suddenly turned backs. This time it made her angry. She moved through the crowd with deliberate insolence, holding any eye she accidentally caught. I'm already notorious, she thought. I might as well be brazen, too. She was hungry. In the Ramsey dining room someone had set up an assortment of finger foods that looked surprisingly good. Elena took a paper plate and dropped a few carrot sticks on it, ignoring the people around the bleached oak table. She wasn't going to speak to them unless they spoke first. She gave her full attention to the refreshments, leaning past people to select cheese wedges and Ritz crackers, reaching in front of them to pluck grapes, ostentatiously looking up and down the whole array to see if there was anything she'd missed. She'd succeeded in riveting everyone's attention, something she knew without raising her eyes. She bit delicately down on a bread stick, holding it between her teeth like a pencil, and turned from the table. â€Å"Mind if I have a bite?† Shock snapped her eyes wide open and froze her breath. Her mind jammed, refusing to acknowledge what was going on, and leaving her helpless, vulnerable, in the face of it. But though rational thought had disappeared, her senses went right on recording mercilessly: dark eyes dominating her field of vision, a whiff of some kind of cologne in her nostrils, two long fingers tilting her chin up. Damon leaned in, and, neatly and precisely, bit off the other end of the bread stick. In that moment, their lips were only inches apart. He was leaning in for a second bite before Elena's wits revived enough to throw her backward, her hand grabbing the bit of crisp bread and tossing it away. He caught it in midair, a virtuoso display of reflex. His eyes were still on hers. Elena got in a breath at last and opened her mouth; she wasn't sure what for. To scream, probably. To warn all these people to run out into the night. Her heart was pounding like a triphammer, her vision blurred. What are you doing here? she thought. The scene around her seemed eerily bright and unnatural. It was like one of those nightmares when everything is ordinary, just like waking life, and then suddenly something grotesque happens. He was going to kill them all. â€Å"Elena? Are you okay?† Sue Carson was talking to her, gripping her shoulder. â€Å"I think she choked on something,† Damon said, releasing Elena's wrist. â€Å"But she's all right now. Why don't you introduce us?† He was going to kill them all†¦ â€Å"Elena, this is Damon, um†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Sue spread an apologetic hand, and Damon finished for her. â€Å"Smith.† He lifted a paper cup toward Elena. â€Å"La vita.† â€Å"What are you doing here?† she whispered. â€Å"He's a college student,† Sue volunteered, when it became apparent that Damon wasn't going to answer. â€Å"From – University of Virginia, was it? William and Mary?† â€Å"Among other places,† Damon said, still looking at Elena. He hadn't glanced at Sue once. â€Å"I like to travel.† The world had snapped into place again around Elena, but it was a chilling world. There were people on every side, watching this exchange with fascination, keeping her from speaking freely. But they were also keeping her safe. For whatever reason, Damon was playing a game, pretending to be one of them. And while the masquerade went on, he wouldn't do anything to her in front of a crowd†¦ she hoped. A game. But he was making up the rules. He was standing here in the Ramseys' dining room playing with her. â€Å"He's just down for a few days,† Sue was continuing helpfully. â€Å"Visiting – friends, did you say? Or relatives?† â€Å"Yes,† said Damon. â€Å"You're lucky to be able to take off whenever you want,† Elena said. She didn't know what was possessing her, to make her try and unmask him. â€Å"Luck has very little to do with it,† said Damon. â€Å"Do you like dancing?† â€Å"What's your major?† He smiled at her. â€Å"American folklore. Did you know, for instance, that a mole on the neck means you'll be wealthy? Do you mind if I check?† â€Å"I mind.† The voice came from behind Elena. It was clear and cold and quiet. Elena had heard Stefan â€Å"But do you matter?† he said. The two of them faced each other under the faintly flickering yellow light of the brass chandelier. Elena was aware of layers of her own thoughts, like a parfait. Everyone's staring; this must be better than the movies†¦ I didn't realize Stefan was taller†¦ There's Bonnie and Meredith wondering what's going on†¦ Stefan's angry but he's still weak, still hurting†¦ If he goes for Damon now, he'll lose†¦ And in front of all these people. Her thoughts came to a clattering halt as everything fell into place. That was what Damon was here for, to make Stefan attack him, apparently unprovoked. No matter what happened after that, he won. If Stefan drove him away, it would just be more proof of Stefan's â€Å"tendency toward violence.† More evidence for Stefan's accusers. And if Stefan lost the fight†¦ It would mean his life, thought Elena. Oh, Stefan, he's so much stronger right now; please don't do it. Don't play into his hands. Hewants to kill you; he's just looking for a chance. She made her limbs move, though they were stiff and awkward as a marionette's. â€Å"Stefan,† she said, taking his cold hand in hers, â€Å"let's go home.† She could feel the tension in his body, like an electric current running underneath his skin. At this moment, he was completely focused on Damon, and the light in his eyes was like fire reflecting off a dagger blade. She didn't recognize him in this mood, didn't know him. He frightened her. â€Å"Stefan,† she said, calling to him as if she were lost in fog and couldn't find him. â€Å"Stefan,please. â€Å" And slowly, slowly, she felt him respond. She heard him breathe and felt his body go off alert, clicking down to some lower energy level. The deadly concentration of his mind was diverted and he looked at her, and saw her. â€Å"All right,† he said softly, looking into her eyes. â€Å"Let's go.† She kept her hands on him as they turned away, one clasping his hand, the other tucked inside his arm. By sheer force of will, she managed not to look over her shoulder as they walked away, but the skin on her back tingled and crawled as if expecting the stab of a knife. Instead, she heard Damon's low ironical voice: â€Å"And have you heard that kissing a red-haired girl cures fever blisters?† And then Bonnie's outrageous, flattered laughter. On the way out, they finally ran into their host. â€Å"Leaving so soon?† Alaric said. â€Å"But I haven't even had a chance to talk to you yet.† He looked both eager and reproachful, like a dog that knows perfectly well it's not going to be taken on a walk but wags anyway. Elena felt worry blossom in her stomach for him and everyone else in the house. She and Stefan were leaving them to Damon. Right now she had enough to do getting Stefan out of here before he changed his mind. â€Å"I'm not feeling very well,† she said as she picked up her purse where it lay by the ottoman. â€Å"Sorry.† She increased the pressure on Stefan's arm. It would take very little to get him to turn back and head for the dining room right now. â€Å"I'm sorry,† said Alaric. â€Å"Good-bye.† They were on the threshold before she saw the little slip of violet paper stuck into the side pocket of her purse. She pulled it out and unfolded it almost by reflex, her mind on other things. There was writing on it, plain and bold and unfamiliar. Just three lines. She read them and felt the world rock. This was too much; she couldn't deal with anything more. â€Å"What is it?† said Stefan. â€Å"Nothing.† She thrust the bit of paper back into the side pocket, pushing it down with her fingers. â€Å"It's nothing, Stefan. Let's get outside.† They stepped out into driving needles of rain.